“How far was the growth of the Civil Rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s due to the emergence of effective black leaders?”
In 1791, the American “Bill of Rights” was drawn up. This bill was passed to “protect the natural rights of liberty and property” of American citizens. However, it was only until 1865 (the end of the civil war) that the Thirteenth Amendment was passed, an amendment that universally abolished slavery amongst the United States. Up until this point, the families of the 645,000* slaves that were originally brought to USA before the 1807 Act of Prohibiting Importation of Slaves were living under constant oppression , being treated as objects rather than humans (unless if they lived in northern 'Union' states before the 1840s by which it is deemed that “virtually all blacks in the North were free”) . Unfortunately, this liberation was short lived, as although they were free, Afro-Americans living In the US were often subject to terrible discrimination and racism, being legally segregated both directly (through state legislation etc. ) and indirectly (economic segregation). It was not until the 1950s and 60s that the Black American populace decided to contest these restrictions in numbers. This sudden rise of activism can be credited to a number of factors. One of these factors is considered by some historians to be the most significant reason for the growth of the civil rights movement, and that is the sudden appearance of many young, charismatic new black leaders.
These included men such as Martin Luther King, Malcom X and Stokely Charmicael, who are all remembered to this day for their effort and dedication towards their cause, civil rights. Martin Luther King Jr, dubbed “ the most important voice of the American civil rights movement” by the Library of Congress in Washington D.C was born in Atlanta, Georgia on January 15th 1929. He progressed through his life, studying at Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania before marrying Coretta Scott (June 18th 1953). During his time at Crozer, he spent time learning about the non-violent protest methods that Mahatma Gandhi had used while trying to liberate India from the British imperial rule. King would later become a Baptist pastor at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery in Alabama. From here, he took part in the famous Montgomery Bus Boycott, where he was appointed the president of the Montgomery Improvement Association. Due to this involvement with the Boycott, he was arrested and fined $500 for preaching the states anti-boycott laws (which were rarely ever enforced) and forced to pay a further $500 in court costs. King then went on to tour the country, making speeches promoting the Civil Rights movement. Two years after President John F. Kennedy was inaugurated (1961-1963) , he proposed his Civil Rights bill to the people, in an act of positive response, King and several other leaders organised what is now the influential march on the Capital. This march is believed by many historians to be a major factor in the passing of of the 1964 Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The act of such a non-violent demonstration and the following “I Have A Dream” speech went on to influence millions of not only black Americans, but civil rights demonstrators globally to this day. This particular event was broadcast around the world at the time, as such peaceful demonstration on this scale had been unseen in the western world. Malcom X, born Malcom Little in May 19th 1925, was another important black leader. Unlike King however, Malcom X was not an advocate of peaceful protest, stating "Our objective is complete freedom, justice and equality by any means necessary." The words “by any mean necessary” are an example of Malcom X's political mindset, which can be captured in his words “Concerning non-violence: It is criminal to teach a man not to defend himself, when he is the constant victim of brutal attacks.”
However, although his methods were different to King's, he was still popular and influential within the black community. Particularly the Muslims within said community, who shared the same religious belief as Little. The late part-leader of the Nation Of Islam ( a black supremacist, new religious movement) was shot and killed on February 21st, 1965. His funeral, held at Unity Funeral Home in Harlem attracted 14,000 – 30,000 mourners and was covered by several media outlets. Although Malcom X is criticised for his radical views, there is debate if the man just pushed certain militant statements to scare the government and predominately white public in order to push them in favour of MLK's statements. In relation to this, he once stated “I really did come thinking I could make it easier. If the white people realize what the alternative is, perhaps they will be more willing to hear Dr. King." In summary it is without doubt that the influence of fresh black leaders had on the black population had a huge impact on the growth of the civil rights, but there is several other factors that also have significant impact, such as the “Cold War” and the impact that had on the United States.
America's domestic policy regarding civil rights was on display to the world during the 50s and 60s, when TVs and radios started getting sold en-mass to the consumers, and for many Americans, it was deemed embarrassing. America had been creating this image of the Soviet Union and communism in general as evil and anti-democratic, yet some American citizens could not exercise their own democratic rights within 'The Leader of the Free World.” The Soviets used this to their own advantage, slating America as hypocrites both in the international scene and at home as well. One notable Soviet propaganda poster depicts the statue of liberty holding a burning cross while many Ku Klux Klan members look at the reader, the caption reads (in Russian) “Is this a freedom”? The Soviets, knew exactly how to utilise this flaw in the American system and did so with efficiency. America had a stature to maintain in Western Europe and had a need to appeal and be popular with those not involved in the Cold War (Third World countries). In order to do this, changes in domestic policy had to take place. Mary Dudsiak noted that “as presidents and secretaries of state from 1946 to the mid-1960s worried about the impact of race discrimination on U.S. prestige abroad, civil rights reform came to be seen as crucial to U.S. foreign relations.” After the civil rights acts of 1957, 1960, 1964 and 1968 were passed, these 'embarrassments' to US prestige that were the legalised discrimination of Blacks had ended. America no longer would have to face international criticism on the scale it had for legalised racism. Whether or whether not this had a bigger influence than the influence of the new Black Leaders is debatable, however, the encouragement gained from previous Civil Rights successes is also a major factor in the growth of the Civil Rights movement.
Although most of the significant federal legislation was passed in the 60's, the early victories for those fighting for civil rights also had huge effect on the growth of the civil rights movement, and without these early successes, some may argue that the pursuit of Civil Rights may have looked like a unrealistic dream for many black citizens. The first main success of the Civil Rights movement came in 1946, with the Establishment of the President's Committee on Civil Rights. Harry Truman (the president at the time) set up the committee to investigate the then current status of civil rights within the US. The committee had three terms of reference, which were:
“to examine the condition of civil rights in the United States”, “to produce a written report of their findings” and “to submit recommendations on improving civil rights in the United States”. The report, “To Secure These Rights: The Report of the President's committee on Civil Rights” that was submitted in October 1947 went on to state that a permanent Civil Rights Commission should be set up, as well as a Joint Congressional Committee on Civil Rights, and Civil Rights Division in the Department of Justice that would aim to develop federal protection from lynching and to abolish poll taxes, amongst other things. Truman, having read through these reports went on to sign Executive orders 9980 and 9981, which ordered for the desegregation of both the federal work force (9980) and armed forces (9981). Truman, realising the upcoming change that was about to take place stated in his farewell address, “There has been a tremendous awakening of the American conscience on the great issues of civil rights--equal economic opportunities, equal rights of citizenship, and equal educational opportunities for all our people, whatever their race or religion or status of birth”. The desegregation of the federal workforce and the military was viewed as a massive success for the Civil Rights movement, and it was to be the first of a few before the massive changes the Civil Rights Act and Voting Acts brought. The 1954 Brown vs School Board of Topeka decision was another massive success for the Civil Rights movement. In 1896, the Plessy vs Ferguson decision (“separate but equal”) had decided that separate facilities for separate races did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment. This decision efficiently legalised segregation in all areas. However, in 1951 a lawsuit was pressed against the city of Topeka's (in Kansas) Board of Education. The argument that was being pressed against the Topeka Board of education was that the facilities being provided to Afro-American by the board were far inferior to that provided to white students, but that the board was just pretending that is was equal. The lawsuit called for the Board to change it's policies towards racial segregation, by banning it outright. In this case, the district court ruled in favour of the school board, citing the Supreme courts decision in the Plessy v. Feguson case. The case then went to the Supreme court, where after 3 years of discussion, it ruled in favour of Brown on May 17th 1954. As a result of this, racial segregation in schools was ended on a federal level. However, it was not a popular victory in the southern states, with Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus calling his states national guard to stop the entry of black students to Little Rock Central High School in 1957. On it's impact regarding the growth of the Civil Rights, president George W. Bush commented on it during the opening of the “Brown vs Board of Education National Historic Site”, saying that is it was “a decision that changed America for the better, and forever.“ Another hugely famous early success of the Civil Rights movement was the famed “Montgomery Bus Boycott”. The boycott was started in December 1st 1955 after an African American woman – Rosa Parks – refused to give up her seat to a white person and was arrested in result. On the night of Park's arrest, flyers were put up around Montgomery's black community by Jo Ann Robinson, calling for people to “Please stay off all buses Monday” and “Don't ride the buses to work, to town, to school, or anywhere on Monday”. The next morning at a church meeting headed by a young MLK it was decided that a citywide boycott of public transport should be utilised in demand of desegregated public transport. On December the 3rd 1955 almost no blacks used public transport and their demonstration proved to be very efficient, causing many economic problems for the public transport companies. Although the blacks were showing peaceful and non-violent ways of economic protesting, the White Citizen's Council of Montgomery resorted to fire-bombing the houses of MLK, Ralph Abernathy as well as four Baptist churches. The boycott managed to get national attention when 156 protesters were arrested and fined $500 (or given the option of 386 days in jail). King, who had been convicted (as previously mentioned) amongst the 156, commented on it by saying that he was “proud of [his] crime. It was the crime of joining [his] people in a non-violent protest against injustice." Justice came for the boycotter’s on November 13th 1956, where the federal district court and the Supreme Court ruled against Alabama's racial segregation laws on public transport by saying they were unconstitutional. This is arguably the most famous early success of the Civil Rights movement, and Albama's Offical State “Department of Archives and History” considers it “the beginning of the Modern Civil Rights Movement”. All of these successes are hugely important in the growth of the civil rights movement, however, most of them, in particular the Brown vs Topeka case could not have happened had it not been for the emergence of effective black organisations such as the NAACP.
The National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People is one of many important black organisations that pushed for Civil Rights. The NAACP states its mission is “to ensure the political, educational, social and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination”. Set up in Feburary 12th 1909 it precedes the Modern Civil Rights movement, however, it is important in the progression of it, and operates throughout it, even to this day. The NAACP was predominately made up of middle class, educated black citizens, often in their adulthood. They had fought the Jim Crow laws all the way back from 1913. However, the new organisations such as the South Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) played a far bigger part in the modern civil rights movement. This is partly due to the NAACP being banned from Alabama. Also, Roy Wilkins, the NAACP's executive director got into several arguments with Civil Rights leaders such as Martin Luther King regarding strategies within the Civil Rights movement. However, it was Martin Luther King's South Christian Leadership Conference that had taken the NAACP's seat at the forefront of the Civil Rights movement. Founded on January 10th 1957 when Dr. King invited 60 black ministers to a meeting in Atlanta. Dr. Kings goal was to create a group that would organise and co-ordinate non-violent protests in hope of desegregating the Southern States of the US. The SCLC found it difficult to make a foothold in the black churches in the south, due to the widespread clamp down on activism through intimidation and attacks by racist groups such as the White Citizens Council and the Ku Klux Klan. Those churches that did stand up and align themselves with the SCLC could and would face attacks by these groups for doing so.
The SCLC started 'citizenship schools' in 1954. These schools (the first being located on the “Sea Islands off the coast of Georgia”) taught illiterate adults how to pass tests that were originally designed to stop blacks from voting and stop blacks from gaining an equal place in society. An example of the work done here would be teaching black people how to read so they would pass the Literacy test and therefore be eligible to vote. Under the name of “Highlander Folk School”, these Citizenship schools spread throughout the south, aiming to end indirect segregation and give black's an equal place in society. In 1963, a brilliantly planned demonstration in Washington D.C left the world stunned. 200,000 – 300,000 protesters attended, and there was not one case of violence, despite fears of rioting within the capital. The SCLC leader MLK himself delivered his iconic “I Have a Dream” speech, which is widely regarded as the most influential speech of the entire Civil Rights movement. Another widely influential group in relation to the growth of the civil rights movement was the Student Non-Violent Coordinating committee (SNCC) which was started by a $800.00 grant from the SCLC for a conference where young activists could talk and discuss potential activites. The conference was held at Shaw University from April 15th to April 17th in 1960, and over 100 students attended. Marion Barry, who would later become the mayor of Washington D.C was the first chairman of the group. They were nicknamed, “the shock-troops of the revolution” as their members took increasingly dangerous risks and led the way for braver ways of demonstration. One of these ways was “the freedom rides” where several co-ordinated and co-operating groups (the SNCC being the most prolific) would take interstate bus rides, starting off in areas where buses were not segregated and ending in areas in the deep south where public transport was segregated. These “freedom riders” would be subject to assault, verbal abuse and death threats. Sit-ins began to take popularity aswell, the most notable one being the Greensboro sit-ins, where four students refused to move from a white area until they were served on the 1st of Feburary 1960. This went on for days, and after the fourth day, 300 people took part. It was only a week later when this was becoming a phenomena, with students in North Carolina launching their own sit-ins, before spreading to all the towns near Greensboro such as Raleigh, Durham and Charlotte