SWOT analysis on the management and development of Yala wetland agro-ecosystem in Bondo district , Kenya
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS 4
INTRODUCTION 6
1.1 Background of the study 6
1.2 Problem statement 6
1.3 Justification of the study……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7
1.4 Objectives of the study………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7
1.4.1 Broad objective……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….7
1.4.2 Specific objectives…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..8
1.5 Research assumptions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….8
1.6 Research questions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………8
1.7 Conceptual framework………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………9
1.8 Significance of the study………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….10
1.9 Definitions of acronyms…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..10
LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……11
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….11
2.2 Global literature review…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..12
2.2.1 Wetland management in the US……………………………………………………………………………………………………13
2.3 Regional literature review………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..13
2.3.1 Wetland management in Tanzania……………………………………………………………………………………………….13
2.3.2 Wetland management in Zambia………………………………………………………………………………………………….14
2.3.3 Wetland management in Zimbabwe……………………………………………………………………………………………..16
2.4 National literature review………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..17
2.4.1 Yala wetland management……………………………………………………………………………………………………………20
2.5 Conclusion of literature review………………………………………………………………………………………………………….20
METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..21
3.1 Study area characteristics………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22
3.2 Target population……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..22
3.3 Sample size and sampling procedure……………………………………………………………………………………………….22
3.4 Data collection methods………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….23
3.5 Data analysis methods……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..23
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………………..…………………………..24
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS…………………………………………………39
5.1 Summary of findings………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….39
5.2 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….40
5.3 Recommendations
5.3.1 Recommendations for further research
5.3.2 Recommendations for policy makers
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Nyanza province is endowed with natural resources such as the Yala swamp, a natural wetland located in Nyanza province along the River Yala tributary. The River Yala wetland ecosystem is delineated within the National Water Resources Management Strategy (NWRMS) and section 14 of the Water Act 2002 (Catchment Management Strategy, 2007).
A large portion of River Yala wetland has been reclaimed and is dominantly under cultivation either for commercial or subsistence agriculture. These form the main livelihood opportunities for sedentary rural communities. In commercial farmlands such as the Dominion farms, agriculture is done by farm machinery in large plantations of up to 3 700 hectares of wetland around the tributary of River Yala. Reclamation has been undertaken in an attempt to ease the poverty level by providing employment and increasing food production in the area for local use as well as export surpluses hence making the area economically and agriculturally independent.
In LVN, the population was estimated at 6.4 million (2006) and is projected to reach 7.6 million by 2012. The population thus faces enormous challenges with regards to the sustainable management of the Yala swamp wetland.
1.2 Problem statement
Enormous resources should translate into better standards of living but this is not the case in a province that borders the second largest freshwater lake in the world as the constituencies have high disparity in terms of poverty. Inequality reports by the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) and the Society for International Development (SID) state that Nyanza province is the poorest province with the poverty index at approximately 77%, an urban poverty rate of 63% and a rural poverty rate of 65% (www.inequalitykenya.or.ke)
River Yala wetland was reclaimed during the 1970’s as a rice production scheme under the government run Lake Basin Development Authority (LBDA). Years of mismanagement rendered the area unproductive and increased household food insecurity of the locals. Yala swamp agro-ecosystem as a rice irrigation scheme has been managed and controlled by three groups of stakeholders: private schemes and small holder community irrigation schemes which have led to hostilities and conflicts among the stakeholders.
The Yala CMU is susceptible to floods and flashfloods; there is thus the challenge of floods which cause disasters in LVNCA due to ineffective flood management strategies. With the recurrent food insecurities experienced in Kenya and Nyanza province not being an exception, there has been need to increase investment options in irrigation development and water harvesting to ensure accelerated growth and sustainable development.
1.3 Justification of the study
The Government of Kenya has set Vision2030 as a major economic strategy to ensure that Kenya industrializes. With chronic food insecurities, rampant environmental degradation, poor water catchment and harvesting strategies, Vision2030 and the objectives of MDG’s run the risk of not being realized. Thus, this project sought to explore the challenges and intervention strategies in place to facilitate sound sustainable development initiatives in the Yala wetland agro-ecosystem.
1.4 Objectives of the study
1.4.1 Broad objective
The overall objective of this study was to examine the strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats related to the management, sustainable development and environmental conservation of the Yala wetland agro-ecosystem in attempts to eradicate poverty in the region.
1.4.2 Specific objective
So as to realize the above objective, the following specific objectives were addressed:
i. To examine the existing environmental implications of Yala wetland reclamation.
ii. To assess the underlying factors that hinder community participation and integration in the sustainable management and development of the Yala wetland agro-ecosystem.
iii. To explore the production and conservation strategies of Yala wetland agro-ecosystem.
iv. To find out the socio-economic implications of commercial large-scale farms in the region.
1.5 Research assumptions
i. Rapid reclamation of the wetland has led to mechanized agriculture competing directly with ecosystem conservation.
ii. There is over-expectation and over-dependency of the local community on commercially run large-scale farms in the region.
iii. Intensification and diversification has driven agricultural growth and reduced poverty in the immediate surrounding areas.
1.6 Research questions
i. What are the existing resource use patterns by communities living around the Yala wetland ecosystem?
ii. What are the implications of commercial farms to the sustainable conservation and management of Yala wetland ecosystem?
iii. What are the challenges towards community participation and integration strategies in conservation of the ecosystem?
iv. What intervention strategies are to be put in place to ensure sustainable use of Yala wetlands?
1.7 Conceptual framework
The conceptual framework below shows the inter-relationship between the SWOT variables.
SYNERGY
Integrated
Management
Initiatives
Breakdown
In
Synergy
Negative synergy
Figure 1: A conceptual framework showing variable inter-relationships
1.8 Significance of study
The economic and agricultural potential of the Yala wetland cannot be left untapped while the region wallows in abject poverty and episodes of insufficient food supply. This study therefore hoped to unlock the constraints hindering sustainable development and ecosystem management; this study also sought to assess the production opportunities presented in the region and proposed some intervention measures that if applied will guarantee a win – win for all the involved stakeholders as well as ecological and bio-diversity conservation.
1.9 Definition of acronyms
CBS - Central Bureau of Statistics
CMU - Catchment Management Unit
LBDA - Lake Basin Development Authority
LVN - Lake Victoria North
LVNCA - Lake Victoria North Catchment Area
MDG’s - Millennium Development Goals
NWRMS - National Water Resources Management Strategy
SID - Society for International Development
SWOT - Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Wetlands are normally viewed as areas of stagnation that are bothersome as they are habitats for disease causing vectors as well as eyesores. Thus the world over Kenya included, they have been drained and rapidly reclaimed for purposes of agriculture, settlement and industrial purposes. The term wetland according to dictionary.com refers to a low-lying area of land that is saturated with moisture, especially when regarded as the natural habitat of wildlife that encompasses a wide variety of aquatic habitats: swamps, marshes, bogs, prairie potholes, flood plains and fen.
According to the Ramsar definition, wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salty, including areas of marine water, the depth of which does not exceed six meters. Wetlands include areas of land characterized by abundant, stagnant or slowly seeping moisture in the upper layers of soil and the earth. They occur in many areas of the earth but never in areas of permanent snow and ice or in deserts or arid areas. The total area of wetlands amounts to about 2 682 000 km2 or about 2% of the land surface. It consists of peat marshes in countries with temperate climates and their equivalents in tropical and equatorial areas (UNESCO, 1978).
The Kenya Wildlife Service describes wetlands as one of the most productive systems in the world that perform a wide range of essential services and functions to humans. The Kenya Wildlife Service affirms the notion of abuse and misuse of wetlands in Africa and the entire world. According to KWS, it is estimated that 35% - 40% of the world’s species live within or around wetland systems. However, due to their vast ecological wealth, wetlands have always fallen victim of over manipulation by man. Global wetlands are rapidly disappearing due to lack of proper management systems and water catchment areas for agriculture, industry and human settlement. Wetlands in Africa play a critical role in socio-economic development especially contributing to food security and sustenance of livelihoods. However, the unregulated uses of agro-chemicals and industrialization have resulted in considerable pressure on the bio-diversity found on wetland sites (www.kws.org).
The UNDP population projections indicate that over the next 25 years food will be required for another 2 – 3 billion people. Water is increasingly seen as a key constraint on food production, equivalent to if not more crucial than land scarcity. Irrigated agriculture is already responsible for more than 70% of all water withdrawals (more than 90% of all consumptive use of water). Even with an estimated need for an additional 15% -20% of irrigation water over the next 25 years serious conflicts are likely to arise between water for irrigated agriculture and water for other human and ecosystem uses (www.cap-net.org). Agriculture can have major positive and negative effects on the environment for example agricultural intensification can reduce the clearing off of forested land but it can also increase pollution from pesticides or large livestock production.
Water resources such as wetlands thus are a threatened ecosystems and this is a phenomenon not exclusive to developing countries. The subsequent literature reviews discuss the threatened eco-systems as a result of reclamation for irrigation purposes.
2.2 Global Literature Review
In many parts of the world, agricultural growth has a proven record of reducing poverty, hunger and environmental problems. Water is not distributed evenly over the globe as it is estimated that fewer than 10 countries possess 60% of the world’s available freshwater supply (Fry, 2005). Agriculture is by far the largest user of land and water resources accounting for 86% of water consumption in developing countries in 1995 and 34% of total land area in 2000 and agricultural production directly affects soil and water quality, the level of bio-diversity, the aesthetic appearance of the landscape and global changes in the environment (The WorldBank, 2005).
The World Development Report (2002) asserts that intensification in irrigated areas has driven agricultural growth and catalyzed much wider macro-economic growth and poverty reduction in many developing countries especially Asia. Irrigated high-potential systems support higher levels of production and reduce variability in food crop yields. However, there are challenges being faced in large scale irrigation areas for instance farm mechanization has reduced employment opportunities for landless laborers; population growth has caused farms to become smaller and more fragmented; rapid industrialization and urbanization compete directly with other sectors for land.
2.2.1 Wetland management in the US
Over the past 200 years, more than 50% of the wetlands in the US have been lost and many of the remaining wetlands are degraded as cities, industries and agriculture expand. The United States does not depend on rain-fed agriculture, as irrigation is a major strategy to ensure sufficient food production. However, in recent times as the importance of wetlands have been identified, the United States government in collaboration with institutions of research, NGO’s and other stakeholders have undertaken intensive wetland conservation initiatives that seek to protect the remaining wetlands through alternative land uses for example eco-gardens that attract tourists and as research centers.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency states that in 1906, 79 million acres of swamp and overflowed areas were considered for reclamation so that they could be made profitable for agriculture. The US Department of Agriculture estimates that 45 million acres were reclaimed by a combination of clearing, drainage and flood control enterprises devoted to crops, pasture and other dry land uses. Agricultural drainage and flood control have been the greatest destroyers of wetland habitats which significantly reduce both the quantity and quality of wetlands useful to wildlife. Expansion of cities, industrial sites and resorts is often accomplished at the expense of good wetland – wildlife habitat (www.epa.gov/wetlands).
2.3 Regional Literature Review
2.3.1 Wetland management in Tanzania
In Tanzania, wetlands were considered as wastelands although they were potentially suitable for agriculture due to the availability of water and high soil fertility (Masija, 1991). At present, some wetlands are used for agriculture and also support other activities including wildlife, tourism and forestry. However, conflicts arise between pastoralists and smallholder farmers who grow crops in projects in the river basins are: increased agricultural production must be carried out on a sustainable basis and in conjunction with sound environmental policies and, as water is becoming a scarce resource in both quantitative and qualitative terms, it must be used in the most judicious manner.
With the introduction of improved paddy varieties and better water management, paddy cultivation is done under five ecosystems in the wetland in Tanzania. After harvesting of paddy, in some irrigation schemes such as Mto wa Mbu and Lower Moshi, residual moisture in the fields is used for growing short term crops before the next season. These include cow peas, vegetables, sweet potatoes and green maize (www.fao.org). However the following aspects limit the sustainable use of wetlands in Tanzania:
• Limited knowledge by the public on the usefulness and potential of the wetlands due to customs, culture and lack of appropriate education.
• Insufficient planning for the sustainable use of wetlands.
• Inadequate interaction with neighboring countries on the wise use of shared resources.
• Insufficient coordination among beneficiaries.
• Insufficient funding for research into conservation and wise use of wetlands (Masija, 1991).
2.3.2 Wetland management in Zambia
Zambia a landlocked country in Southern Africa, covers about 752 600 km2 located between latitudes 80 and 180 South and longitudes 220 and 330 East. A large part of Zambia is on the Central African plateau between 1 000 and 1 600 meters above sea level. Wetlands in Zambia, occupy slightly more than 20% (150 520km2) of the country’s total area of 752 600 km2. Small swamps in the northern provinces of Zambia are Busanga, Lukanga, Bangweulu swamps and Lake Mweru – Wantipa and Lake Mweru marshes. The wetlands are seasonally or permanently wet grassy valleys, depressions or seepage zones on slopes by seepage from surrounding high ground assisted by rainfall and have water tables for most part of the year in the upper 50 – 100 cm of the soil profile from which they drain into streams. Wetlands have been retained for water conservation and micro-climate control alone, except for rough grazing in tsetse fly free areas. Formerly, cultivation of wetlands was seen as a means of grossly damaging the headwaters. However, the policy slightly changed to allow utilization of the wetlands for agriculture under strictly controlled conditions.
The utilization of wetlands in Zambia is widespread. In the last 10 to 15 years, growing human population, increased need for food production, income generation and the occurrence of drought have been major factors leading to intensified and diversified utilization of wetlands. Wetlands in Zambia present the opportunity to support a wide range of livelihood activities. These include crop production, livestock rearing, fishing, gathering of wild products, brick making, craft and building materials and above all water for domestic use, especially in the dry season when wells in the upland become dry. Crop production wetlands in most cases occupies the entire calendar year. Depending on the socio-economic set up of the ethnic group, rice and/or early maize are the major crops produced in the Zambian wetlands during the rain season. Early maize from the wetlands alleviate the “hunger period” in the mid rainy season (January to March). Vegetable production is with some exceptions restricted to the dry season. The most common vegetable crops grown are rape, cabbage, tomato and onion. This is mainly due to the high incidence of vegetable pests and diseases as well as high water tables during the rainy season. There is a definite competition for wetland uses by cattle keeping ethnic groups and garden owners, who fence their fields and/or guard their gardens from livestock during the gardening period.
The major crop production constraints in Zambian wetlands generally include weed infestation, flooding, acidity and pest and disease attacks. Weed infestation especially in rice production, is severe where the water level is irregular and comes sometimes too late in the season. Flooding just like in Kenya’s Yala wetland, on the other hand is a big threat where flood levels can rise quickly and too early in rice fields. Acidity and other chemical toxicity cause sterility in rice production. Blast in rice production is a major threat especially where water control is bad and also where water saturation of the soil is not permanent. Traditionally, anyone who wanted to work in the wetland could do so as long as they belonged to the village and provided they informed the headman. This breakdown of traditional distributive mechanisms of land threatens to have a negative impact on the wetland. In addition, there is absence of local level institutions that could effectively control misuse of fragile environments like wetlands.
Mismanagement of wetlands such as over cultivation, discriminate digging of drains and overgrazing, threatens to permanently dry up wetlands. The destruction of wetlands will eventually lead to the loss of the ecological niches the very basis for crop and animal improvement (FAO, 1998).
2.3.3 Wetland management in Zimbabwe
It is estimated that Zimbabwe is endowed with 1.28 million hectares of wetland areas and 20% of these are in the communal areas. Prior to colonization and the enactment of the Land Apportionment Act, indigenous farmers cultivated wetlands and were successfully producing crops as rice, maize, cleus esculentus and vegetables. The Natural Resources Act and Water Act now govern the utilization of these ecosystems, which seek to protect them from degradation particularly through cultivation. The enactment of these restrictive pieces of legislation was a reaction of the Government to the mismanagement of these ecosystems by settler farmers who sought to cultivate wetlands conventionally for purposes of growing crops as maize, wheat and tobacco. Since these crops do not grow well in areas with high water tables, drainage lines were installed, which caused the drying up of wetlands, soil erosion and the siltation of rivers and dams. Wetlands were then classified as being unsuitable for cultivation and are currently designated as grazing areas. Only in very special but rare cases was permission granted for a farmer to cultivate wetlands by the Natural Resources Board, which is the authority with the responsibility to administer legislation (FAO, 1998).
Currently, as Zimbabwe is experiencing socio-economic and political problems, wetlands and their related catchments continue to degrade at an alarming rate and the cultivation of wetlands has increased without the granted permission from the board. Such encroachment through cultivation, in the absence of technical guidance or traditional experience which has since been forgotten by many, has resulted in increased damage.
2.4 National Literature Review
Kenya has an irrigation potential of 539 000ha that can be increased substantially with water storage and exploitation of ground water. Out of the total potential 105 000 ha (19%) have been developed. Irrigation potential of the Lake Basin is 210 700ha. In comparison to other countries, the rate of irrigation development in Kenya has been very low at about 0.5% p.a. The Great Rift Valley running north to south influences and determines the drainage pattern so that from the flanks of the Rift Valley, water flows westwards to Lake Victoria and eastwards to the Indian Ocean. The Rift Valley itself forms an internal drainage system. In this case therefore, Kenya consists of five major basins: Lake Victoria, Rift Valley, Athi River, Tana River and Ewaso Ngiro basins. However, only two of these basins can be rated to have surplus water resources: Lake Victoria and Tana River. The other three basins have water deficits and often rely on inter basin water transfers to meet their basic water needs.
Availability of surface water in the country for socio-economic and ecological sustenance is primarily influenced by its quantitative distribution in space and time and by its quality. The distribution countrywide varies from basin to basin with surface run-off and groundwater recharge rate being influenced by rainfall intensity, soil types, vegetation cover and presence or absence of wetlands. Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on earth. They allow interaction between water, soil, vegetation and light all the year round or during a greater part of the year. The depth of the water is such that it allows photosynthesis to occur, making wetlands productive life-supporting ecosystems. It is this association of water, light, soil and plants that typifies various wetlands of Kenya which are famous for their spectacular avifauna and fisheries resources.
According to the Kenya National Environment Action Plan (1994), a substantial proportion of Kenya’s water resources are found in wetlands, which cover 2% to 3% of the country’s surface area. These wetlands are diverse in type and distribution. Some of the larger wetlands of Kenya include the shallow lakes Nakuru, Naivasha, Magadi, Kanyaboli, Jipe, Chala, Elmentaita, Baringo, Ol’Bolossat, Amboseli and Kamnarok; the edges of Lake Victoria and Lorian, Saiwa, Yala, Shompole swamps; Lotikipi and Kano plains; Kisii valley bottoms and Tana Delta; and coastal wetlands including the mangroves swamps, sandy beaches, sea grassbeds and coral reefs. The list also includes various seasonal and temporal wetlands that occur where internal drainage allows water to collect in some seasons or in some years. These are found all over thee country, including rock pools and springs in the southern part of Nairobi, west of Ngong Hills, and at Limuru. Man-made wetlands include the dams, primarily meant for hydropower and water supply, and wetlands created for purposes of wastewater treatment.
The Kenyan wetlands play a fundamental ecological role and have potential as resources of great economic, cultural and scientific value. Among the critical values are:
• Wetlands provide critical habitats for a wide range of flora and fauna. Their biodiversity includes a large number of aquatic plants, fish, herbivores and avifauna of resident and migratory birds;
• Wetlands are important sources of water for human consumption, agriculture and watering livestock. They recharge wells and springs that are often the only source of water to some rural communities, for livestock watering and for wildlife support systems. The recharging of aquifers, raises the water table making groundwater easily accessible. This has been the case in western Kenya, along the Tana river corridor and in the Chyulu hills catchment area for Mzima springs and the Nol-Turesh water supply system.
• Wetlands provide economic benefits through fisheries and generation of products such as fuelwood, building material, medicine, honey and various types of natural foods;
• Wetlands are important grazing areas. They are the only sources of water and pasture/fodder for the pastoral communities during drought in the ASAL’s;
• Wetlands serve a wide variety of ecosystem functions including flood control, water purification, shoreline stabilization and sequestration of carbon dioxide;
• Wetlands are areas of great scenic beauty. They are tourist attraction, form important recreation sites for game and birds watching, swimming, photography and sailing;
• Wetlands have great potential for multiple uses for example irrigation, aqua-culture and so on so long as precautionary measures are taken for sustainable development.
Characterization and classification of wetlands have been carried out by various governmental agencies whose mandates touch on wetlands. Among thee agencies is Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) whose mandates includes management of protected wildlife areas, such as National Parks, Marine Parks, and Game Reserves. Other agencies are the Public Universities, National Museums of Kenya, the Forest Department, the Water Development Department, Regional Development Authorities, the Ministry off Agriculture, the Ministry of Planning and National Development and the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. Non-Governmental institutions involved include Kenya Wetlands Working Group (KWWG), Lake Victoria Wetlands Team, Lake Naiivasha Ripariian Owneers Association (LNROA) and Kipsaina Wetlands Conservation Youth Group (KWCYG).
All these institutions have varying mandates and interests that are not only sectoral but also uncoordinated and sometimes overlapping. Each of the institutions interacts with the wetlands in accordance with its interpretation of its mandate. Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) for instance, being the national focal point for the Bonn Convention on Migratory Species and the Ramsar Convention on wetlands, has the mandate of conserving natural resources. The main objective of this conservation has been to enhance the ecological, economic, aesthetic and scientific values of the wildlife habitats and the biodiversity thereof for the economic benefits of Kenya and as a world heritage. Under this agreement, several large wetlands have been accorded protection status. These protected wetlands include Lake Nakuru within the Lake Nakuru National Park, Lake Bogoria, Mzima springs in Tsavo west National Park, Tana River floodplain within the Tana River Primate National Reserve and Lake Amboseli within the Amboseli National Park. This management preference leaves out many other important wetlands unprotected and under threat of degradation. Yala wetland and catchment area is one of this extremely important eco-systems left unprotected and thus under acute degradation.
Extraction of water for irrigation and drainage of wetlands for agriculture causes degradation and loss off biodiversity. These problems include salinity and sodicity, increase in water-borne diseases, soil compaction, reduction in water flow to downstream users, and change in water courses. These problems result from lack of feasibility studies or inadequate implementation of the results of such studies.
2.4.1 Yala Wetland Management
In Yala wetland, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment finds itself often at crossroads in the implementation of its conservation mandate particularly where the development may involve drainage of a wetland to create room for agricultural food production or alternative land use. Attempts have been made since the 1960’s to drain the Yala Swamp to increase land for agriculture. Wholesale draining of this wetland has not been possible because of thee role it plays in the buffering of Lake Victoria from the effects of Yala and Nzoia rivers although its rapidly being incised to create more land for irrigation (NEAP, 1994).
The Yala wetland agro-ecosystem as a rice irrigation scheme has been managed by three groups of stakeholders:
• Private schemes owned by individuals and/or companies and are run as commercial enterprises. The most notable private scheme being the Dominion Group.
• Public schemes developed and centrally managed by government agencies that give farmers tenancy rights for us of the irrigation facilities for crop production facilities.
• Smallholder community irrigation schemes that are owned, operated and managed by the farmers through their irrigation water users’ association.
The presence of all these players means that conservation and preservation efforts have been marred with various challenges that threaten to bee counterproductive due to the varying interests in the wetland.
2.5 Conclusion of Literature Review
In conclusion, many wetlands altered by humans are drained to support agricultural uses, while others are filled for urban development, dyked for water impoundments to diminish flooding or dredged for marines and ports. Indirect impacts from pollutants, urban run-off and invasion by non-native species continue to degrade and destroy wetlands. Conflicting and contradictory policies and mandates have also led to mismanagement of wetlands. Within the context of the Yala wetland, discriminatory policies has led to it being denied protection status according to the Ramsar convention and this has further facilitated over utilization and over extraction of the wetland resources.
Population growth over the years has increased dependency on the fragile ecosystem to provide food to sustain the exponential growth. Given the agricultural viability of wetlands, they have been over stretched beyond their carrying capacity. Sustainable agricultural development is a challenge to most African countries Kenya included. The challenge of ensuring ecosystem sustainability is to include all the stakeholders poor people included. Exploitation of wetlands for irrigation purposes cannot bee abandoned due to conservation and preservation initiatives and vice versa. This linkage thus forms WEAKNESSES and THREATS that can be developed into OPPORTUNITIES that ensure ecological sustainability and socio-economic STRENGTHS for present and future generations.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study area characteristics
Yala swamp is a wetland, an area spanning approximately 17 500ha (17.5 km2) stretching 25km from West to East and 15km from North to South at the lakeshore. It is located on the Lake Victoria North Catchment Area (LVNCA) which extends in latitude from its Southern border on the equator 00000’ to about 10015’ and in longitude from 340 to 35030’ East. The LVNCA lies over 1 000m above sea level (Catchment Management Strategy, 2007).
The wetland covers three districts namely Bondo district, Siaya district and Kakamega district. The wetland forms the mouth of both Rivers Nzoia and Yala and it is a freshwater delta wetland arising from the backflow of water from Lake Victoria as well as the river’s floodwater. The wetland provides a very important habitat for refugee population of certain fish species which have disappeared from the lake. This project given the magnitude of the ecosystem thus covered the immediate surroundings of the Dominion farms in Ratuoro sub-location, Bondo district.
3.2 Target population
The target population were the stakeholders of the Yala wetland notably the local communities, the local county council and the private commercial farm in the locality. This is because they are the majority managers and exploiters of the fragile ecosystem.
3.3 Sample size and sampling procedure
Community County Council Commercial farm
Table 1. A table showing the derived sample size
3.4 Data Collection Methods
Data collection was primarily employed by the use of questionnaires. The first section was composed of basic respondents’ background questions and the second section consisted of questions that determined the SWOT of management in Yala wetland agro-ecosystem.
Observation was used to collect data related to the visible environmental attributes for example, the vegetation condition, land and water use and level or degree of degradation. Photography provided evidence of occurrences and community initiatives.
3.5 Data Analysis Methods
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This research project sought to investigate the strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats facing the development and management of Yala wetland agro-ecosystem. An assessment of the stated objectives obtained the following results:
i) To examine the existing environmental implications of Yala wetland reclamation.
In the analysis of eco-friendly approaches applied during exploitation of the Yala wetland resources, 90% of the respondents disagreed on the notion of eco-friendly production approaches being currently employed during exploitation of Yala wetland.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Valid strongly disagree 11 36.7 36.7
disagree 16 53.3 53.3
agree 3 10.0 10.0
Total 30 100.0 100.0
Table 2. A tabulation of responses of eco-friendly approaches applied during exploitation of the Yala wetland resources.
Informal discussions with the respondents pointed out some ecological harm being done by a large private owned commercial farm in the area. Machinery such as bull-dozers and excavators leave the soil compact. Furthermore, thee mould board dish plough that dig too deep expose the hard soil pan that increase erosion of the top soil when it rains and makes it impossible for seeds to grow. Because of cost limitations, the spare parts of machinery are either recycled and/or imported from outside and used without assessment by KEBS. These have leaked oil and diesel in the soil. The commercial farm, being a major stakeholder of the wetland, uses large-scale pest management strategies. The pesticides and herbicides used in the farm affect the local ecosystem and biodiversity for instance, pesticide controls for quelea birds kill the quelea birds as well as poison chicken, geese and ducks of local villagers who live adjacent to the farm. In addition, the respondents cited that pesticides and herbicides used in the farm affect insects like bees which pollinate fruit trees like pawpaw. The pawpaw fruit which was harvested in large quantities has drastically fallen in the area in recent times. To compound the use of chemicals for pest control, the bee keeping initiative in the commercial farm failed as droves of bees died from the effects of chemical sprays leaving the bee hives empty and thus rendering employees in the bee keeping department unemployed.
At the communal and large scale level, field preparations using the slash and burn method impact negatively on the environment. The smoke from burning papyrus reeds and rice wastes pollute the air in the surroundings as evidenced in the photograph below:
(insert pic ya burning shamba)
At the small-scale level, logging is rampant for firewood and charcoal which emits carbon dioxide and other harmful gases. Due to massive crop failure experienced by the small-scale farmers, they induce plant growth using growth stimulants like pesticides and herbicides. Without their use, food production is inhibited. Discussions by the local county council employee in the area also pointed out that monocropping of maize is also rampant in the area which has stripped the soils off valuable mineral components thus a majority of small-scale farmers in the region have experienced massive crop failure as evidenced by the photograph below:
(insert pic ya dead shamba)
93.3% of the respondents agreed that rapid reclamation has caused agriculture and mechanization to compete directly with ecosystem conservation.
Table 3. A graphical presentation of responses showing competition between agricultural mechanization and ecosystem conservation.
Out of the 17 500 hectares, over 10 000 hectares of Yala wetland has been drained to provide land for rice production and other land uses. A large acreage being reclaimed at once through the use of motorized agriculture unleashes carbon dioxide and other fumes as well as dust on the ecosystem. Trees acting as buffers have been felled thus ruining boundaries and arrestors of pesticides and herbicides on the external environment. This has led to loss of natural biodiversity for example the waterbucks and hippos which are left with no natural habitats and exposed to villagers who hunt and kill for meat and other benefits indiscriminately.
ii) To assess the underlying factors that hinder community participation and integration in the sustainable management and development of the Yala wetland agro-ecosystem.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Valid strongly disagree 14 46.7 46.7
disagree 9 30.0 30.0
neither agree nor disagree 1 3.3 3.3
agree 6 20.0 20.0
Total 30 100.0 100.0
Table 4. A tabulation of responses of environmental preservation and conservation initiatives.
76.7% of respondents felt that environmental preservation and conservation initiatives are not undertaken by all the stakeholders involved. One of the respondents stated as a matter of fact that there were negative attitudes towards the commercial farm which is a major stakeholder in the region as they have undertaken large scale draining of the farm without consensus with a majority of the local community members. This mostly arose as a result of limited employment opportunities offered.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Valid strongly disagree 10 33.3 33.3
disagree 6 20.0 20.0
neither agree nor disagree 1 3.3 3.3
agree 9 30.0 30.0
strongly agree 4 13.3 13.3
Total 30 100.0 100.0
A tabulation of responses of community building initiatives in Yala wetland agro-ecosystem
In addition, 53.3% of respondents were of the view that capacity building initiatives to enhance harmony among stakeholders in the development and management of Yala wetland agro-ecosystem were ineffective and only initiated when there were disagreements among the stakeholders. However, 43.3% of respondents felt that community capacity building initiatives were adequate and effective. Some of the community outreach programs observed were community health centers, schools, water programmes and sanitation centers for example the communal wash and bath centers to discourage pollution of the water source by people who bath and wash in the river banks and water canals. All these initiatives were funded and continue to be funded by the commercial farm in the wetland.
iii) To explore the production and conservation strategies of Yala wetland agro-ecosystem
80% of respondents were in agreement that controlled development of Yala wetland was necessary to improve the livelihoods of the locals and improve household food insecurity.
A graphical representation of respondents in support of controlled development of the wetland.
In the examination of this objective, the presence of safety nets put in place to discourage dependency was investigated.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Valid strongly disagree 5 16.7 16.7
disagree 2 6.7 6.7
neither agree nor disagree 12 40.0 40.0
agree 8 26.7 26.7
strongly agree 3 10.0 10.0
Total 30 100.0 100.0
A tabulation of responses of safety nets put in place to discourage dependency of locals on private stakeholders.
Of the respondents, 23.3% felt that there were no safety nets in place to discourage dependency of locals or crowd out local initiatives. For instance, the commercial farm discourage local inhabitants adjacent to the farm from rice keeping as thee variety they attempt to grow most of the time are sources of rice disease which may be detrimental. 40% of the respondents neither agreed nor disagreed whereas 36.7% felt that safety nets were in place to discourage dependency. This was through the constituency Development Fund (CDF) and Youth Development Fund disbursed to the youths and constituents in order for them to start alternative businesses thus avoiding over dependence on the fragile wetland ecosystem for production and extraction. Given the percentages, it can be safely deduced that the presence of safety nets i.e. CDF and Youth Development Fund, are excellent initiatives however the impacts are felt by a small percentage of people leaving a large percentage of locals economically disillusioned.
It was also discovered that a staggering 90% of respondents felt that there were no government incentives to implement resource conserving technologies for both small scale and large scale farmers within and around the Yala wetland.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Valid strongly disagree 20 66.7 66.7
disagree 7 23.3 23.3
agree 2 6.7 6.7
strongly agree 1 3.3 3.3
Total 30 100.0 100.0
A tabulation of responses showing government incentives to implement resource conservation technologies.
Table 9. A graphical presentation of responses showing government incentives to implement resource conservation technologies.
As with the more developed nations like Germany which offer subsidies and incentives for the application of resource conserving strategies during resource exploitation, the Kenyan central and local government has no such initiatives to both small scale and large scale farmers thus leaving demoralized stakeholders who worsen or maintain the status quo leading to a vicious cycle of damaging production and conservation strategies.
Product diversification has partially presented opportunities for extraction of raw materials for example brick building by the locals to the surroundings. Papyrus reeds that are cut are made into paper using low cost techniques that are used as packaging thus reducing use of plastic paper bags for rice packaging and inherently conserving the ecosystem. Product diversification by commercial farms has led to the development of fish farms which depend on rice wastes for food. This has led to improved waste management of rice husks and thus providing new opportunities for resource extraction.
iv) To find out the socio-economic implications of commercial large scale farms in the region
Implications of large-scale commercial farms on the socio-economic spheres of the environment are both positive and negative. Of the respondents, 90% agreed that farm mechanization in private owned farms has reduced employment opportunities for laborers.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Valid strongly disagree 2 6.7 6.7
disagree 1 3.3 3.3
agree 5 16.7 16.7
strongly agree 22 73.3 73.3
Total 30 100.0 100.0
A tabulation of responses showing government incentives to implement resource conservation technologies.
Farm mechanization offers employment opportunities
An interview with farm employee stated that over 80% of production is primarily done by machinery from land preparation, harvesting, processing to packaging. This has reduced employment opportunities for locals who would otherwise have been employed. This is because the area is very expanse thus to increase outputs and reduce production costs, mechanization has been not only necessary but also mandatory thus unskilled and semi-skilled employment has been very low. A respondent also clearly stated that skilled employment is needed and there are opportunities for employment in management as opposed to physical labor. An interview with a local resident said that prior to the large scale reclamation, locals grew food crops of their choice for example banana plants and maize plantation.
An exponential growth in population in the region has seen an increase in the number of unemployed youths. A whopping 97.6% of respondents agreed that population growth has increased depending of locals on private stakeholders for employment. The graph and table below summarizes the findings:
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Valid strongly disagree 1 3.3 3.3
agree 23 76.7 76.7
strongly agree 6 20.0 20.0
Total 30 100.0 100.0
A table showing percentages of employment dependency.
A pie chart summarizing implications of population growth on employment dependency
Population growth having increased the number of households has increased dependency ratio on family heads who look for work in commercial farms in the area. This has had ripple on effects among the locals who compete for the very limited job offers available. The researcher also observed that there were very many unemployed young men in the sub locations’ trading centre whiling away as there were no opportunities to tap into.
This research found out that 60% of interviewed respondents felt that agricultural growth has not reduced poverty, hunger and environmental problems in the region.
Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid strongly disagree 4 13.3 13.3
disagree 14 46.7 60.0
neither agree nor disagree 5 16.7 76.7
agree 5 16.7 93.3
strongly agree 2 6.7 100.0
Total 30 100.0
A table showing agriculture has not reduced poverty, hunger and environmental problems in the region.
A bar graph showing the relationship between poverty, hunger, environmental problems and agriculture in the region.
Poverty and hunger is still rife in the region. The researcher observed that there was great disparity in the state of private commercial farms and individual farms. The private commercial farms were lush and green and appeared productive whereas local owned farms appeared neglected and the maize plants had dried up before reaching maturity.
(insert pic ya dead shamba and dominion on opp side of the road)
The researcher was informed that poor farming strategies employed by local residents and limited access to water canals dug by the commercial farms were major factors contributing to the poor outputs from individual farms. The poor farming strategies include monocropping and unproductive seeds being introduced in the area and over reliance on rain fed agriculture by the locals despite the presence of a permanent river nearby which can be tapped to irrigate the farms thus ensuring household food security . A respondent further stated that poverty was rife because the ecosystem had been interfered with as the normal water courses had been tampered with.
A dismal 23.4% of respondents cited that agricultural growth from the commercial farm had reduced poverty, hunger and environmental problems in the region. A respondent stated that a majority of the locals had developed an over-dependency syndrome and when the job opportunities were scarce, they failed to recognize the economic growth in the location as a result of the commercial large-scale farm operating in the area. The respondent being a self employed business man further claimed that the local youths wanted things brought to them on a silver platter and those who refused to see the growth and subsequent development were being pessimists and narrow minded.
A major positive implication of the commercial large-scale farm on the socio-economic sphere of the environment was the development of the extensive marrum road network.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid strongly disagree 1 3.3 3.3 3.3
agree 23 76.7 76.7 80.0
strongly agree 6 20.0 20.0 100.0
Total 30 100.0 100.0
A tabulation showing agreement on developed road marrum infrastructure in the area.
From the above table it can be deduced an impressive 96.7% agreed that the commercial farm had contributed towards the road network being developed which had opened up the wetland and other remote areas in the location. The road network though not tarmacked, had offered employment opportunities to the local young men who operate motor bicycle taxis known as boda boda that traverse the area thus commute visitors, workers and locals to and from the farm. This has formed a major source of employment hiring more than 40% of the unemployed youth.
The regular road maintenance is also carried out by the local residents thus offering some reprieve towards the economic emancipation of the locals. It can thus be concluded that the physical infrastructure in place has diversified agricultural production for the commercial large scale farm as exports from the farms are airlifted from the farm to Wilson airport in Nairobi for export. The developed physical infrastructure has however opened up the wetland to over exploitation by locals as well as investors thus negatively impacting on ecological conservation. On the flip side, the respondents clearly pointed out that other infrastructure like electricity is expensive and unavailable to the majority.
In concerns of gender equality in opportunities of development and management in Yala agro-ecosystem, 50% of respondents were in agreement that gender disparity was not an issue when it came to development and management of Yala agro-ecosystem.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Valid strongly disagree 6 20.0 20.0
disagree 2 6.7 6.7
neither agree nor disagree 7 23.3 23.3
agree 13 43.3 43.3
strongly agree 2 6.7 6.7
Total 30 100.0 100.0
A table showing gender equality responses
A pie chart showing distribution of responses pertaining to gender equity in
opportunities of development and management in Yala agro-ecosystem.
A civil society official stated that both sexes are given equal employment opportunities especially in private owned farms where qualifications matter more than gender. The researcher also observed that there were females operating heavy machinery alongside their male counterparts. Within the management of the commercial farm, it was observed a fair distribution of both female and male employees. However, 26.7% of respondents disagreed on gender equality as being practiced. An unemployed male respondent stated that jobs predominantly male were being done by women for instance as security guards which was unfair on his part as they were now competing for the few ones that were available.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND REOMMENDATIONS
5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
STRENGTHS
• Developed road network
• Gender equality in opportunities of development and management of Yala ecosystem
• Safety nets are in place to discourage dependency
• Agriculture growth for large scale commercial farms.
WEAKNESSES
• Employment dependency
• Lack of incentives for integration of resource conserving technologies
• Poor capacity building initiatives
• Agriculture growth has not reduced poverty, hunger and environmental problems in the region.
THREATS
• Exponential population growth
• Reclamation competes directly with ecosystem reclamation.
• Reduced employment opportunities due to mechanization.
OPPORTUNITIES
• Product diversification.
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Governmeent of Kenya (1994), The Kenya National Environment Action Plan (NEAP). GoK, Nairobi.
Masija, E.K (1991), Irrigation of wetland in Tanzania. In: proceedings of a seminar on wetland of Tanzania pp73-75. Morogoro.
The World Bank (2005), Agricultural growth for the poor: An agenda for development. WorldBank, Washington D.C.
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