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background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 0%; clear: right; margin-bottom: 0.5em; float: right; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; width: auto;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody><tr><td><table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"><tbody><tr><td><div id="toctitle"><h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle">[<a href="javascript:toggleToc()" class="internal" id="togglelink">hide</a>]</span></div><ul><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#System_Architecture"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">System Architecture</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Execution_Cycle"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Execution Cycle</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Commands"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Commands</span></a><ul><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Instructions"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Instructions</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Examples"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Examples</span></a><ul><li class="toclevel-3"><a href="#Numeric_Example"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Numeric Example</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-3"><a href="#Mnemonic_Example"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Mnemonic Example</span></a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Using_labels"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Using labels</span></a><ul><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Label_use_example"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Label use example</span></a></li></ul></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a><ul><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Simulators"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Simulators</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table><script type="text/javascript">//<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]></script></td></tr></tbody></table><p>The <b>Little Man Computer</b> (LMC) is an instructional <a href="/wiki/Model_%28abstract%29" title="Model (abstract)" class="mw-redirect">model</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>, created by Dr. <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Madnick" title="Stuart Madnick">Stuart Madnick</a> in 1965<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup>. The LMC is generally used to teach students, because it models a simple <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a> computer - which has all of the basic features of a modern computer. It can be programmed in machine (albeit usually in decimal) or assembly code.</p><p><a name="System_Architecture" id="System_Architecture"></a></p><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: System Architecture">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">System Architecture</span></h2><p>The LMC model is based on the concept of a little man locked in a small room. At one end of the room, there are 100 mailboxes (<a href="/wiki/Memory_%28computers%29" title="Memory (computers)" class="mw-redirect">memory</a>), numbered 0 to 99, that can each contain a 3 digit instruction. Furthermore, there are two mailboxes at the other end labeled <b>INBOX</b> and <b>OUTBOX</b> which are used for receiving and outputting data. In the center of the room, there is a work area containing a simple two function (addition and subtraction) calculator known as the <a href="/wiki/Accumulator_%28computing%29" title="Accumulator (computing)">Accumulator</a> and a resettable counter known as the Program Counter. The Program Counter is similar to what a doorperson uses to keep track of how many people have entered a facility -- it can count up 1, or it can be reset to 0. As specified by the <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a>, memory contains both instructions and data. The user loads data into the mailboxes and then signals the little man to begin execution.</p><p><a name="Execution_Cycle" id="Execution_Cycle"></a></p><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Execution Cycle">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Execution Cycle</span></h2><div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/wiki/Instruction_cycle" title="Instruction cycle">Instruction cycle</a></div><p>The little man performs the following steps to execute a program:</p><ol><li>check the Program Counter for the mailbox number that contains a program instruction</li><li>fetch the instruction from the mailbox with that number</li><li>Increment the Program Counter (so that it contains the mailbox number of the next instruction)</li><li>decode the instruction (includes finding the mailbox number for the data it will work on)</li><li>fetch the data from the mailbox with the number found in the previous step</li><li>execute the instruction</li><li>store the new data in the mailbox from which the old data was retrieved</li><li>Repeat the cycle or halt</li></ol><p><a name="Commands" id="Commands"></a></p><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Commands">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Commands</span></h2><p>While the LMC does reflect the actual workings of <a href="/wiki/Binary" title="Binary">binary</a> processors, the simplicity of <a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal</a> numbers was chosen to minimize the complexity for students who may not be comfortable working in binary/<a href="/wiki/Hexadecimal" title="Hexadecimal">hexadecimal</a>.</p><p><a name="Instructions" id="Instructions"></a></p><h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Instructions">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Instructions</span></h3><p>Each LMC instruction is a 3 digit decimal number. The first digit represents the command to be performed and the final two digits represent the address of the mailbox affected by the command.</p><table class="wikitable"><caption>Instructions</caption><tbody><tr><th>Numeric code</th><th>Mnemonic code</th><th>Instruction</th><th>Description</th></tr><tr><td>1xx</td><td>ADD</td><td>ADD</td><td>Add the value stored in mailbox xx to whatever value is currently on the accumulator (calculator).<dl><dd>Note: the contents of the mailbox are not changed, and the actions of the accumulator (calculator) are not defined for add instructions that cause sums larger than 3 digits.</dd></dl></td></tr><tr><td>2xx</td><td>SUB</td><td>SUBTRACT</td><td>Subtract the value stored in mailbox xx from whatever value is currently on the accumulator (calculator).<dl><dd>Note: the contents of the mailbox are not changed, and the actions of the accumulator are not defined for subtract instructions that cause negative results - however, a negative flag will be set so that <b>8xx (BRP)</b> can be used properly.</dd></dl></td></tr><tr><td>3xx</td><td>STA</td><td>STORE</td><td>Store the value from the accumulator (non-destructive) and store it in mailbox xx (destructive).<dl><dd>Note: the contents of the accumulator (calculator) are not changed (non-destructive), but contents of mailbox are replaced regardless of what was in there (destructive)</dd></dl></td></tr><tr><td>5xx</td><td>LDA</td><td>LOAD</td><td>Load the value from mailbox xx (non-destructive) and enter it in the accumulator (destructive).</td></tr><tr><td>6xx</td><td>BRA</td><td><a href="/wiki/Branch_%28computer_science%29" title="Branch (computer science)">BRANCH</a> (unconditional)</td><td>Set the program counter to the given address (value xx). That is, value xx will be the next instruction executed.</td></tr><tr><td>7xx</td><td>BRZ</td><td>BRANCH IF ZERO (<a href="/wiki/Conditional_%28programming%29" title="Conditional (programming)">conditional</a>)</td><td>If the accumulator (calculator) contains the value 000, set the program counter to the value xx. Otherwise, do nothing.<dl><dd>Note: since the program is stored in memory, data and program instructions all have the same address/location format.</dd></dl></td></tr><tr><td>8xx</td><td>BRP</td><td>BRANCH IF POSITIVE (conditional)</td><td>If the accumulator (calculator) is 0 or positive, set the program counter to the value xx. Otherwise, do nothing.<dl><dd>Note: since the program is stored in memory, data and program instructions all have the same address/location format.</dd></dl></td></tr><tr><td>901</td><td>INP</td><td>INPUT</td><td>Go to the INBOX, fetch the value from the user, and put it in the accumulator (calculator)<dl><dd>Note: this will overwrite whatever value was in the accumulator (destructive)</dd></dl></td></tr><tr><td>902</td><td>OUT</td><td>OUTPUT</td><td>Copy the value from the accumulator (calculator) to the OUTBOX.<dl><dd>Note: the contents of the accumulator are not changed (non-destructive).</dd></dl></td></tr><tr><td>000</td><td><a href="/wiki/HLT" title="HLT">HLT</a></td><td>HALT</td><td>Stop working.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>DAT</td><td>DATA</td><td>This is an <a href="/wiki/Assembler" title="Assembler">assembler</a> instruction which simply loads the value into the next available mailbox. DAT can also be used in conjunction with labels to declare variables. For example, DAT 984 will store the value 984 into a mailbox.</td></tr></tbody></table><p><a name="Examples" id="Examples"></a></p><h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Examples">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Examples</span></h3><p><a name="Numeric_Example" id="Numeric_Example"></a></p><h4><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Numeric Example">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Numeric Example</span></h4><p>This program takes two numbers as input and outputs the difference. Notice that execution starts at Mailbox 00 and finishes at Mailbox 07.</p><table class="wikitable"><tbody><tr><th>Mailbox</th><th>Numeric<br>code</th><th>Instruction</th><th>Comments</th></tr><tr><td>00</td><td>901</td><td>INBOX --> ACCUMULATOR</td><td>INPUT the first number, enter into calculator (erasing whatever was there)</td></tr><tr><td>01</td><td>308</td><td>ACCUMULATOR --> MEMORY[08]</td><td>STORE the calculator's current value (to prepare for the next step...)</td></tr><tr><td>02</td><td>901</td><td>INBOX --> ACCUMULATOR</td><td>INPUT the second number, enter into calculator (erasing whatever was there)</td></tr><tr><td>03</td><td>309</td><td>ACCUMULATOR --> MEMORY[09]</td><td>STORE the calculator's current value (again, to prepare for the next step...)</td></tr><tr><td>04</td><td>508</td><td>MEMORY[08] --> ACCUMULATOR</td><td><dl><dd>(Now that both INPUT values are STORED in Mailboxes 08 and 09...)</dd></dl><p>LOAD the first value back into the calculator (erasing whatever was there)</p></td></tr><tr><td>05</td><td>209</td><td>ACCUMULATOR = ACCUMULATOR - MEMORY[09]</td><td>SUBTRACT the second number from the calculator's current value (which was just set to the first number)</td></tr><tr><td>06</td><td>902</td><td>ACCUMULATOR --> OUTBOX</td><td>OUTPUT the calculator's result to the user</td></tr><tr><td>07</td><td>000</td><td>HALT</td><td>HALT (We're Done!)</td></tr></tbody></table><p><a name="Mnemonic_Example" id="Mnemonic_Example"></a></p><h4><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mnemonic Example">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Mnemonic Example</span></h4><p>Using the LMC mnemonic codes, an assembly language version of the program to subtract two numbers is given below.</p><dl><dd><i>This example program can be compiled and run on the <a href="http://www.atkinson.yorku.ca/%7Esychen/research/LMC/LMCHome.html" class="external text" title="http://www.atkinson.yorku.ca/~sychen/research/LMC/LMCHome.html" rel="nofollow">LMC simulator</a> available on the website of <a href="/wiki/York_University" title="York University">York University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>). This Java applet-based simulator includes full instructions and sample programs, a compiler to convert the assembly into machine code, a control interface to execute and monitor programs, and a step-by-step detailed description of each LMC instruction.</i></dd></dl><pre>INPSTA FIRST INPSTA SECOND LDA FIRST SUB SECONDOUT<a href="/wiki/HLT" title="HLT">HLT</a>FIRST DATSECOND DAT</pre><p><a name="Using_labels" id="Using_labels"></a></p><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Using labels">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Using labels</span></h2><p>The convenience of assembled mnemonics is made apparent from this example %u2014 The programmer is no longer required to memorize a set of anonymous numeric codes, and can now program with a set of more memorable instructions. However, the programmer is still required to manually keep track of mailbox locations. Furthermore, if an instruction was to be inserted somewhere in the program, the final HLT instruction would move down to address 08. Suppose the user entered 600 as the first input. This value would overwrite the 000 (HLT) instruction. Since 600 means "Branch to mailbox 0" the program, instead of halting, would get stuck in an endless loop.</p><p>To work around this difficulty, most assembly languages (including the LMC) allow the use of <a href="/wiki/Label_%28programming_language%29" title="Label (programming language)">labels</a>. A label is simply a word provided as a name to the left of a particular line in the program text, which the assembler will convert to the appropriate address at the time of assembly. When seen to the right of the instruction, labels then take on the value of the address calculated.</p><p>Labels are commonly used to:</p><ul><li>identify a particular instruction as a target for a BRANCH instruction</li><li>identify space as a named variable (using DAT)</li><li>load data into the program at assembly time for use by the program.<ul><li>This use is not obvious until one considers that there is no way of adding 1 to a counter. One could ask the user to input 1 at the beginning, but it would be better to have this loaded at the time of assembly</li></ul></li></ul><p><a name="Label_use_example" id="Label_use_example"></a></p><h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Label use example">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Label use example</span></h3><p>This program will take a user input, and count down to zero.</p><pre> INLOOP SUB ONE // This address will be called LOOP, Subtract the value stored at ONE OUT BRZ QUIT // If we are at 0, then jump to the location QUIT BRA LOOP // We are not at 0, go back to the start of LOOPQUIT HLTONE DAT 1 // Put the value 1 in this mailbox, and call it ONE (variable declaration)</pre><p><a name="See_also" id="See_also"></a></p><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">See also</span></h2><ul><li><a href="/wiki/CARDboard_Illustrative_Aid_to_Computation" title="CARDboard Illustrative Aid to Computation">CARDboard Illustrative Aid to Computation</a> (CARDIAC) A similar instruction set - with simulator - from Bell Laboratories.</li></ul><p><a name="Simulators" id="Simulators"></a></p><h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Simulators">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Simulators</span></h3><p>Little Man Computer simulation using:</p><ul><li><a href="http://www.atkinson.yorku.ca/%7Esychen/research/LMC/LMCHome.html" class="external text" title="http://www.atkinson.yorku.ca/~sychen/research/LMC/LMCHome.html" rel="nofollow">Java Applet</a></li><li><a href="http://www.freemeg.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=101&Itemid=75" class="external text" title="http://www.freemeg.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=101&Itemid=75" rel="nofollow">Windows</a></li></ul><p><a name="References" id="References"></a></p><h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Little_man_computer&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">References</span></h3><ol class="references"><li id="cite_note-0"><b><a href="#cite_ref-0">^</a></b> <cite style="font-style: normal;" class="web">"<a href="http://www.acs.ilstu.edu/faculty/javila/lmc/" class="external text" title="http://www.acs.ilstu.edu/faculty/javila/lmc/" rel="nofollow">Little Man Computer</a>". <a href="/wiki/Illinois_State_University" title="Illinois State University">Illinois State University</a>. 2000-05-01<span class="printonly">. <a href="http://www.acs.ilstu.edu/faculty/javila/lmc/" class="external free" title="http://www.acs.ilstu.edu/faculty/javila/lmc/" rel="nofollow">http://www.acs.ilstu.edu/faculty/javila/lmc/</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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